Introduction
The importance of the reclamation, revitalization, maintenance, and strengthening of Indigenous languages was highlighted by Canada’s passing of the Indigenous Languages Actin June 2019. The Act outlines the importance of Indigenous language rights, for both oral and signed languages, as a core part of Reconciliation. The use of Indigenous languages in First Nations settings may also improve well-being through better health outcomes, decreased suicide risk, and better academic success rates, as Indigenous languages and the cultural beliefs and values they transmit are essential to the emotional well-being and health of Indigenous people.
“A language encodes information within itself from the time and place and society in which it emerges. It contains values and ideas. It gives us connection to history, culture and land, to ritual and family. It is our human birthright.”
The right Indigenous Deaf Peoples have to Indigenous sign language is mandated by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Unfortunately, in the broader topic of Indigenous language revitalization, Indigenous sign languages are often forgotten, or their importance is understated. This was demonstrated by the fact that Indigenous Deaf Peoples were not adequately involved or included in the initial consultations for the Indigenous Languages Act, which resulted in Indigenous Sign Language being excluded from the Act until advocacy by Indigenous Deaf Peoples, like the BC Hummingbird Society for the Deaf (BCHSD), pushed for recognition and inclusion.
What is Indigenous Sign Language?
Before the colonization of North America, which brought the Indian Residential School system for both Indigenous and Deaf children, Indigenous Deaf people and their kinship circles used a variety of Indigenous Sign Languages to communicate. Researchers such as Dr. Melanie McKay-Cody, a Deaf Cherokee scholar, refer to the grouping of Indigenous Sign Language used in North America as North American Indian Sign Language (NAISL) or “Hand Talk.” There are many regional variations within this language grouping, with tribe- or nation-specific variations occurring with regions as well.
Historically, Indigenous sign language has been widely used by both deaf and hearing citizens. It was used for practical purposes such as hunting and trading but is also a vital part of the rich storytelling traditions of many First Nations. It is used for storytelling, ceremonial purposes, and daily conversing. Two examples are the widespread use of Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL) and Inuit Sign Language – known as Inuit Uukturausingit (IUR) in Inuktitut (ᐃᓄᐃᑦ ᐆᒃᑐᕋᐅᓯᖏᑦ).
PISL was widely used across North America before European contact and was prevalent during the 18th century. In an interview with Canadian Geographic, Dr. Lanny Real Bird explains that PISL was common among Crow Elders when he was a child. Signs were also taught to him by kin for situations when it was necessary to be silent, such as hunting and preparing for ceremonies. When he was a youth, Dr. Lanny Real Bird realized that other Indigenous people who spoke different Indigenous oral languages were using signs at regional powwows and rodeos. This widespread use is because PISL is a lingua franca, meaning a language that facilitates communication between groups of people who speak different languages.
Researcher Joke Schuit notes that like PISL, historically IUR was also used by hearing Inuit to hunt and to bridge oral linguistic gaps between different language speakers. Deaf Inuit are well integrated into society and face relatively little to no stigma amongst the Inuit community. This likely reflects the Inuit Societal Value called Tunnganarniq, which emphasizes the importance of being welcoming and inclusive.
Residential Schools and the Linguistic Genocide of Indigenous Sign Language
The Canadian model for the education of Deaf students, as implemented in mainstream and Indian Residential Schools beginning in the mid-1800s, was much less inclusive. In mainstream institutes, this education allowed many Deaf students to form a community and receive an education. Still, it did not address the lack of inclusion in the broader Canadian society.
In Residential schools, the colonial education model led to both hearing and Deaf Indigenous students being stripped of their oral and signed Indigenous languages. The Deaf community also experienced language suppression, with schools forbidding the use of sign languages, such as American Sign Language (ASL) and Langue des Signes Québécoise (LSQ), between the late 1800s and the 1960s. Sign language was incorrectly thought to impair speech development in deaf students.
Unfortunately, instead of using this shared experience to uplift Indigenous sign language, Deaf residential schools taught Indigenous Deaf students that their signs were “primitive” and “inappropriate.” Indigenous Deaf students were discouraged from using Indigenous sign language in favour of European-based sign languages. Notably, the primary users of IUR are Deaf Inuit adults who have not attended school. Deaf Inuit children would be taught IUR at home, but when sent to a deaf boarding school where ASL is used, the use of IUR declined. When these children return home, there may be communication barriers as their family members may not know ASL, and their exposure to IUR may be limited. This sometimes led to family members and friends learning ASL and reducing the use of IUR, further putting the Indigenous sign language at risk. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) states that PISL is critically endangered and that IUR is severely endangered.
The Revitalization of Indigenous Sign Languages
Fortunately, some Indigenous Deaf students continued using Indigenous sign language after surviving Residential schools, despite what they endured, allowing the language to be passed down within their specific cultural and kinship circles. Historically and presently, several efforts have sought to revitalize and maintain Indigenous sign language. For example, the BC Hummingbird Society for the Deaf and the Nunavut Deaf Society both organize and advocate for the rights of Indigenous Deaf people, including the right to access Indigenous sign language. Efforts seek to protect existing Indigenous sign language while they grow and change. An example of this is the recent creation of Oneida sign language (OSL) by Marsha Ireland, a Deaf citizen of the Oneida Nation.
Other efforts include a multi-day PISL language camp in Poundmaker Cree Nation led by Dr. Lanny Real Bird and a PISL-based theatre program run by theatre artist Floyd Favel. Both suggest that teaching Indigenous sign language alongside spoken Indigenous languages can help facilitate learning spoken Indigenous languages.
“By reviving sign language, you are doing a cultural healing, because now you’re making it okay for people to express themselves, gesture, move, sign. You are giving them permission to move their bodies and their hands and to revive 50 percent of Cree language.”
Conclusion
Awareness of Indigenous Sign Language and advocacy for inclusion and support in education is also growing, with specific initiatives in various K-12 and postsecondary education. Inclusion in curricula and further government protections are crucial for revitalizing, maintaining, and strengthening oral and signed Indigenous Languages in Canada for future Indigenous generations.